Case Study of Architect Koh Sheh-Ren

THEORIES OF ARCHITECTURE AND URBANISM Ar. Koh Sheh-Ren, graduated from University Malaya and has been working in C’arch since graduation. Other than building undertakings, she was besides involved in a preservation research undertaking sponsored by UNESCO ( LEAP ) ; Community Participation in Waqf Rehabilitation, Kapitan Keling Mosque and environing countries, George Town, Penang, Malaysia. Observation and analysis of her edifices have been done to convey an apprehension of the architect’s architectural theory, to grok personal properties that contribute to the building of architectural theory. One of her undertakings, Garden Manor has been chosen to carry on the analysis. The Garden Manor undertaking, is a residential undertaking comprises a sum of 41 units of 3 floors and 4 floor strata linked Villa. It is chosen to analyze about three external lending factors which are, architectural theory, climatic status and stuff & A ; engineering. First of wholly, the architectural theory or the construct of Garden Manor is, to make something different instead than a typical linked house unit. The typical Malaysian linked houses ever have a deep and narrow footmark, due to the commercial force per unit areas to maximize the denseness. The limited infinites or external facades for forepart and back do a dim and ill ventilated infinite in the center of the house. â€Å"Architecture is non approximately frontages, it is more than that† . The edifice challenges the typical patio layout convention with two solutions. First of wholly, have a shallower and wider floor program which provides a brighter, wider and more broad facet to every floor. Following, the interpolation of unfastened decks next to each party wall creates an extra 3rd external facade for natural lighting and airing. The attendant facade nowadayss each place as a degage unit. The design of the Garden Manor is really alone. It uses fenceless construct but with gated and restrained enclave, hence security is really tight within the country. Each place is able to suit lower limit of four autos under shadiness. Residents are pampered with epicurean clubhouse, that includes installations like swimming pools, secondary schools and many other installations. Second, the climatic facets are good considerated due to the design of the edifice. The facade is really good designed utilizing glass wall for natural sunshine. The house countenance challenges the typical patio layout by supplying 3 external frontages. It has unfastened decks and wider infinites for ample natural visible radiation and airing. Lots of gaps and tall Windowss environing the house allow the edifice to hold brighter and good ventilated infinites. It offers alone and seemless life infinite for the household. The affection and attractive aesthetics enhances the natural connexion to the land. Third, the stuffs and engineering farther enhances the design of the edifice. The stuffs used are spectacless, a pallet of fair-faced concrete and aluminum screens coatings which provide comfy tropical places in the same clip accomplishing the needed development with the denseness of 12 unit / acre. Wide frontages, with degage walls in between houses making 3 external frontages. White pigments and tiles help to make broad infinite. Glass panels and gaps allow natural illuming making alone spacial experience for the user. Theory of architecture is non the history or the pass events of architecture. History has to cover with edifices and the different manners of architecture which have already arisen throughout the clip. History is merely a description of the architectural facts. Theory has attempted to supply accounts for all the facts. It looks for grounds why the edifices look in peculiar manner and why the designers would hold chosen to plan their edifices in such ways. Reasons of why the architectural manners are altering over clip to clip and the attitudes and premises of designers which have influenced their head during some periods and led to those alterations. It besides looks at the beginnings for the thoughts of the designers during the design of their edifices. There are illustrations of motions, alterations, influences, thoughts and theories of the designers which changed the architecture class over clip such as the manner it looked and besides the manners that were used. That has made the edifices look different to what they were earlier. How architecture pattern is influenced by presenting new perceptual experiences of similar events, a new manner of looking at world and stand foring that world in reinforced signifier. In order to understand what is the theory of architecture, we should first look at what designers do in planing edifices. The chief function of architecture is to interpret societal establishments into built signifier by interpreting the complex relationships of an establishment into the linguistic communication of architecture. The relationships are between the different activities which taking topographic point within the establishment. Architects give every of these activities a physical infinite and all these infinites are arranged harmonizing to the functional relationships between the groups of activities within the establishment. Therefore, we are non merely planing facade of the edifice. We do non merely plan walls that make up a signifier. We need deeper believing procedure or planning for every phase of design particularly the planning phase. We should plan facade that is able to reflect the individuality of the edifice and the infinites. Many facets that we should take int o considerations and we besides have to join forces with others. In order to accomplish good coaction and communicating, we study about the demand of the client, the user or proprietor, and every bit good as the map of the infinite. For illustration, Garden Manor is a high terminal development undertaking which targets the upmarket. Therefore, these edifices are expected to be bought by those with position, every bit good as to be suited retirement place for retired persons who wish to hold a quiet, peaceable and elegant life style during their retirement. Following, after we study the demand infinites of the edifice, site visiting is besides a really of import measure and procedure. Different types of site analysis will be conducted to hold better apprehension of the behaviour of the site. Evaluation of potency of the site can besides be done in relation to the development plan and the environmental impact. The of import factors of the site are the location, orientation, sun way, wind way, topography, flora and environing edifices and people. The site analysis identifies the environmental and plan development restraints and chances. After the site analysis and survey about the site, we should be able to construct edifices within the site context without pretermiting the issues on site. Other than the limitations of the site, restraints from the client besides virtually help to make originative solutions to job. Because edifice contains assorted activities and they are built in assorted locations, they are needfully different to the ot hers. They will react to all their peculiar context like topographic point, clip, engineering & A ; programme. Individual edifice represent really peculiar single fortunes. For case, Garden Manor is located at Sierramas, Sungai Buloh which has been known for its natural peaceable milieus in a secured environment with booming landscape gardening and streetscaping. Garden Manor is strategically located and it is a alluring natural retreat from the interior metropolis life. Give in to our hungering for a at leisure living environment with our household. It is merely merely a pleasance to come place to. Garden Manor offers a uninterrupted, clean and unlittered life infinite for the household. The edifices are arranged on tree-lined streets. The heat and ask foring aesthetics enhances our natural association to the land. Nestled amid the environing trees and waves of the land, each edifice succeeds in making a private, yet open-plan household environment. Pedestrain paths nexus these edifices to the clubhouse and pool for easy entree. Communal life is seamlessly harmonious with our personal touches infused into the atmosphere of the places at Sierramas. Afte r the site analysis, they understand the Sun way and wind way on site. They understand the potency of holding tall Windowss and gaps to convey in natural sunshine and air for airing. Buildings are physical things and are made of stuffs. Their basic map is to supply shelter for human existences against a hostile clime despite how complicated they are. As physical enclosures they besides provide a psychological sense of security to their dwellers. Material refers to all the physical substances which are assembled and make the inside and exterior facade of the edifice. Nowadays most edifices are constructed from a monolithic sum of stuffs, each with really specific practical demands and complexness of assembly demands. For illustration, an assembly of exterior wall contains stuffs that help to forestall rain and air current, and besides thermally insulate the dwellers from outside temperatures. It structurally supports the full edifice and the connected enclosure system, supplying ideal interior and exterior coatings. Besides, windows, doors, blowholes, and other gaps as good which connect to the inside and outside of the edifice. This shows the complexness and impo rtance of the stuff choosing procedure in planing edifice. These determinations are based on a figure of carefully considered issues including symbolism, rightness, physical belongingss, and technique. Climate is besides a really of import factor to be considered in choice and assembly of stuffs. We frequently see edifices that have non taken local environmental conditions into consideration, by either retroflexing the same archetypal design, or by planing a edifice for a specific site that ignores climatic issues. The consequence is the edifice performs ill and fails to maintain dwellers comfy without outgos of inordinate energy, close complete dependance on mechanical systems to rectify hapless building determinations. Some stuffs carry specific intensions within peculiar civilizations and parts. We frequently refer to the digesting qualities of rock, or the passing nature of glass or paper. In some instances, the stuff associated with a coveted symbolic look is non available or excessively dearly-won, and another stuff is substituted to retroflex that stuff and accomplish the coveted consequence. In Garden Manor, the fair-faced concrete, glass and aluminum screens coatings creat e a feeling of tropical places. The full edifice is to the full tiled with high quality tiles, while bathrooms are furnished with high quality healthful ware and mirrors. In decision, architectural theory Acts of the Apostless as a of import map between what architects think they are making or what really they do or what they should be making. The theory assesses how good a undertaking has been done supplying the undertaking of architecture is right and accurate representation of its environment. Theory identifies the jobs occurred whenever the architecture fails to stand for its ain environment successfully. These are semantic jobs where the individuality of establishment that can non be understood or predicted by simply detecting its architectural signifier. Theory of architecture besides analyses the causes of these jobs and sometimes in some instances it offers solutions. Theory applies the same sort of critical idea to the full planetary degree of architecture, and besides to the whole of architectural production. It refers to the stylistic picks available presently and asks whether they are suited to stand for the current environment. It provide s account, historical background and context to critical issues in architecture and to current jobs. It inquiries, why things are the manner they are now. This is theory’s critical function. Mention C-arch, . ( 2014 ) . Garden Manor, Kuala Lumpur C'ARCH ARCHITECTURE + DESIGN | Architects Malaysia. Retrieved 20 June 2014, from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.c-arch.com.my/index/garden-manor Koh, S. ( 2014 ) . Personal Communication. C'arch. Propwall, . ( 2014 ) . Garden Manor, Sungai Buloh. Retrieved 21 June 2014, from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.propwall.my/sungai_buloh/garden_manor

Dont Text and Drive Essay

â€Å"Five seconds is the average time your eyes are off the road while texting. When traveling at 55mph, that’s enough time to cover the length of a football field.† (2009, VTTI). While texting and driving has always been an issue since people were able to text on phones, it has not gained much media attention until recently. People may have sent an occasional text while driving ten years ago, but because the keyboard was harder to use, people were not doing it as often. Today’s phones allow you to text with one hand, making it easier to text while driving. With that being said there have been more accidents related to texting and driving. Those that have been injured or almost injured in an accident may no longer text and drive, but the vast majority of people that have yet to injure themselves or others while doing this will continue to text and drive because they feel safe. There are many ads, commercials and even organizations that are against texting and driving but the number of people that have actually stopped texting while driving is at a bare minimum. â€Å"60% of drivers use cell phones while driving.† (2011, Harris Poll). It seems as if all the advertisements have not paid off like planned. The reason behind so many ads is to cut back on texting and driving and I believe the media helps get the idea of texting and driving into people’s heads. People will participate in this dangerous action to prove that they will not get hurt. Others will see this and think it is okay for them to text and drive as well. It is like a deadly chain reaction. The ads need to capture the attention of the audience and show how serious texting and driving really is. I believe this ad has a very powerful meaning. Obviously the main message is do not text and drive but it does have a deeper meaning. The car is driving through a neighborhood and a ball is rolling across the street. It is a typical day in just about everyone’s neighborhood. The phone takes the place of a child running to get the ball. I believe the photographer uses a child rather than an adult because it shows how serious texting and driving is: how one message can take an innocent life. The text under the picture says â€Å"You can’t count on text message to reveal what’s happening on the road in front of you.† I see it as the phone, something so worthless is taking the place of a child, who means the world to someone. This ad is from BMW and the only reason I am pointing this out is because there is a reason BMW is advertising the â€Å"Don’t text and drive† slogan. The iDrive system that was in the cars was very intricate and forced drivers to scroll through menus just to do basic tasks. This gave BMW a bad reputation so to make up for the lost cause they made ads against texting and driving and also updated the iDrive system to make it straightforward. Texting and driving is a serious and fatal problem that many drivers take part in. I think it should be illegal because of how many accidents and deaths are related to texting and driving. Next time you read or reply to a message while driving, think about the danger you put yourself and everyone around you in. Works Cited â€Å"Facts.† Stop the texts. Stop the Wrecks.. NHTSA. Web. 23 Jan 2013.

Poverty, What Makes People Poor

The rich, the middle class, and the poor; are described by the way we live and the amount of money one has. There are many different ways of describing what poverty is, whether it is by how you live, how much money you have, or in statistical terms. Poverty isnt always a bad thing it is just another way of living, another way of life. There are different kinds of poverty that you can measure. There is relative poverty that can be measured to the rest of the population. Relative poverty is measuring less than fifty percent than the average income or wealth that a person has. That means that if you make less than half of what the average person makes you are poor. Relative poverty still means that you are able to survive, but not to the standard that most are at. There is also absolute poverty. This means that you are unable to provide the necessary things that you need to survive in your daily life. Things like food shelter and medical attention. This is the measure that has set The Poverty Line developed by the Social Security Administration. The current poverty line is measured at $16,588 for a family of four. The poverty line is measured by the emergency food budget times three. This means that the food that a family needs to survive multiply by three. You must think that the family must pay for their bills, mortgage, and their food with this money. Seventy percent of a families income goes to house them. According to the United States Census Service there are 34.5 million Americans that are poor. This consists of 12.7 percent of the United States population. This is an under estimate of the real poverty rate because the poverty line is very conservative. About eleven million people are just above the poverty line. United States has the highest poverty rate of the worlds industrialize countries. Some people have it worse than other people. For instance women make up two-thirds of the adult poor population. This could be the cause of many things like divorce, and poor job opportunities. Even though the men and the women get divorced the men income still tend to rise. The single parent household that is headed, by a women tend to have a high poverty rate. Twenty nine and nine tenth percent of single parent families are headed by females. African American females are three time to be poor. Black female head 40.8 percent of black households. Women earnings are seventy cents to the dollar to a male worker. Children are also affected by the single parent families and are the cause of high poverty rate. Children make up 26 percent of the United States population. But they make up forty percent of the poor population. This means that 18.9 percent of all children are poor. Fifty five percent of these children are under six years old. The infantalization of poverty is the fastest growing group in poverty. This can be caused by divorce, wedlock, or a death of a parent. Children out of wedlock are more likely to be poor than any other children. There are many myths about poverty that may lead some people on. One myth is that many people think that the poor do not want to work. In reality, 41 percent of the poor worked and 13 percent of the poor work full time. Even though some people can work forty hours a week they still cant make the poverty line. The minimum wage does not keep up with the inflation of the dollar. Only about 3.5 percent of the poor population, can work, but dont. The two earner families are also the fastest growing group in poverty. Another myth is that most people on welfare are cheating the system. This however is not the case, only about five percent actually cheat the system. This is no more than another government program. The United States is not as generous on the welfare system as it is. The fact is that the United States are very stingy about their welfare system compared to other industrialize nations. Another myth is that people live off the welfare system and doesnt want to get off of it. Most people go off of the welfare within the first two years. They dont want to be on welfare, circumstances put them on it. Like lost job, death of spouse, illness, disability, or a child at home. Some people blame the poverty on the person that is poor. Things they may say would be like, they are too lazy to work or they are taking advantage of the system. These people believe in the person blame approach. The person blame approach focuses on social problems stem from pathological defects in an individual. This approach requires a person to be repaired psychologically in order to fix the social problem. The problem with this is that there is no blame on the persons environment and the social system of society. It is very hard to isolate what has happen in a persons life that caused the problem. It is even harder to fix a persons problem. This would require too many more doctors, institutions, and medical facilities To blame the social system is to take the system blame approach. This means that you are blaming the social problems on a government, a society, and anything else that might act on an individual. System blame stems from situations in which individuals are involved. The problem with system blame is that it leaves off all the blame from the individual, saying that they have no agency, or the ability to act on ones own, no free will. The question that no one ever thinks to ask is: If we had no poverty would we still have the same kind of life. The answer is no. Poverty is a necessary form of the economic and social structure. Without poverty our society would most likely break down and inflation would sky rocket. Think if everybody had a job, money and a good standard of living. Wouldnt that make it harder to find and provide jobs. Employers would have to pay outrageous sums of money so the corporation can hire the employee. This would be a disaster because no one would need to stay at their job if there is no competition for it. The will and hard work of the citizens of this country has work to hard to throw it all away. Poverty effects not only the people who have it, but those who dont want it. In conclusion a poor person is not a diseases, not something that is contagious, but a living thing that everybody should think about. Most poor people are not a bad person, but a person that may have ran into some tough times in their life.

Benifits and Disadvantages of Coaching PowerPoint Presentation

Benifits and Disadvantages of Coaching - PowerPoint Presentation Example Knowledge gets transferred from one individual to another through the process of coaching. It is partly different from teaching in that in coaching, the tutor essentially adopts such a behavior that makes him/her the role model for the learners whereas in the course of learning, the tutor just has more knowledge about the subject as compared to the learners. He/she may not at all be involved in the subject of discussion. All that matters is the conveyance of knowledge to the learners whereas in coaching, the coach essentially tells the followers how to do a certain task. It involves display of certain characteristics that are consistent with the demand of the subject of discussion. Therefore, a coach assumes the responsibility to behave and act professionally so that he/she may rationally decide what to deliver when, how and how much. The same professionalism is inculcated in the followers as they accede to the instructions of the coach. Coaching provides the learners with an opportu nity to identify their weaknesses and discover their strengths with the guidance of the coach. Coaching is a coherent process whose various stages are sensibly linked to each other. In the initial stage of coaching, the coach tells the followers what is expected of them once they master a certain art.

Ethics Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Ethics Paper - Essay Example Many people rudely refer to this disability as retardness. People also have the tendency to discriminate those that they feel to be different from them (Anon, 2013). It is important to pay attention to mental disability as one of the many types of disabilities present in the school system alongside other disabilities in identifying how to school counselors help these students. Poor performance is one of the vast amounts of negative attributes that students may develop while in the school system and it is important to recognize that in some situations, it is deemed as a disability that some kids are born with. It is imperative to understand that the treatment for these behaviors varies over a wide range. However, prescription medication should come as the last way to solve this menace. The most important aspect is for the school counselor to understand reasons the student behaves in a particular nature and what are the present optimal means for the resolution of the problem. One of th e best ways to resolve this problem is through the application of cognitive counseling where the school counselor has the student undergoing various general tests to identify the cause of the disability and figure out how to assist the student to deal with it effectively (Jackson, 2012). In the school environment, it is important to understand that the counselor uses various means to understand the thinking of a student and it is also important to understand that most students are shy and thus do not associate well with teachers in order to improve their learning. It is vital to go through an example whereby in this case there is the school counselor, Richard having an interaction with a troubled student who has mental disability. The student does not perform well in class and is also poor in socializing. In the year 2002, the ASCA released a model framework for school programs such as the school disability act to ensure that school counselors do their best in counseling. Under FERP A, the US Department of Education also released regulations that are important for protecting the students’ confidentiality (FERPA, 2011). The manner in which the framework would work is by ensuring the presence of award ceremonies that would offer gifts and acknowledgements to institutions that had the highest number of positive resolved cases with regard to assisting students with disabilities. This is one way through which ASCA has assisted in dealing with disabilities through school counselors (Stone, 2009) Credibility is alleged by the student through the counselor's ability to be well informed about what the client or patient is facing, and by their enthusiasm to tell their knowledge and information to the patient or client. School counselors employ various mechanisms to deal with disability in the school system. One is reliability. Regardless of the type of disability that a student has, the school counselor has the responsibility of showing reliability through compass ion to the disabled students and acting in a dependable manner towards them. This consideration should be made for all children, including those with disabilities and whose parents have concerns that are unique to their disabilities (Taub, 2006). There is the counselor's motivation and objectives. The student counselor should ensure that he sets out his objectives and

EUROPEAN UNION EQUALITY POLICIES AND WORKPLACE LEGISLATION Essay

EUROPEAN UNION EQUALITY POLICIES AND WORKPLACE LEGISLATION - Essay Example The legislation also advocate for the provisions that ensure that the disabled people in the society are able to work comfortably. This essay shall discuss the equality policies and workplace legislations that cover gender, age, religion and belief, race, and ethnicity. The European Union has formulated policies that advocate for gender equality in many angles. They ensure and promote the existence of equity between men and women, the promote application of gender mainstreaming and facilitate exploration of transgender issues. The policies ensure that the European Union observes gender equality in all the activities at the workplace. The legislations through the Treaty of Rome came up with a principle that ensure that each member state shall give equal pay for men women for equal work (Allen QC & Crasnow, 2001). This principle advocates for equality between men and women and concentrates in the equality at the workplace than in the society. Among all the inequalities in the workplace, the European Union takes more focus to address the issue of gender inequality. The European Union has so far launched a committee that advocates for women rights in its member states. It then established a commission on equal opportunities for all gender to support th e activities carried out by the advisory that handles issues on the availability of equal opportunities between men and women. To sum all these efforts up the European Union has a Commissioner that issues an annual report on gender equality (Carver & Mottier, 1998). The European union refers to equality between men and women when dealing with issues of gender equality rather than women rights since the latter appears as one sided which shows one kind of gender is given dominance. Apart from the provision of equal pay for equal work of an equal value for all gender the European Union has a directive that ensures equal treatment for all gender in matters concerning access to training and employment. This clause also

Sources of Demographic Data Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Sources of Demographic Data - Case Study Example The demographic analysis may also encompass nationality, religion, education, and ethnicity (Murdock, 2006). All these elements are usually vital for the government for planning on different government developmental issues. Nonetheless, all the demographic data that are used in the analysis of population and its structure are usually obtained through numerous sources including census, administrative records, and surveys.  The population census is a collective process that used to collect, evaluate, analyze, compile, and publish data; otherwise, it is the disseminating demographics, social and economic data within a specific time to all persons in a country or within a well-delimited section or part of a country. Census usually involves the collection of data concerning every person within a set of living quarters in the whole country or part of a country. It usually allows estimates for small population and geographic or subpopulation to be used in the final tally (Murdock, 2006). Census processes are usually vital for their bass population figures that usually used to calculate fundamental rates, especially from the civil registration data. It also supplies sample surveys with sample frames. Additionally, censuses are usually vital for securing legislation requirements, political funding and supports, as well listing and mapping all the households. Therefore, census usually has structured steps including formulation of questionnaires that include all the areas of interest including age, sex, education, ethnicity, nationality, household information, and profession among other areas of interest. It is worth noting that census processes are usually complex and expensive. Moreover, not all information can be gathered using a single census period; thus, the questionnaires of any census period are usually designed differently in light of what the final users of the data are interested in.

Daughter from danang Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Daughter from danang - Essay Example The movie depicts how at every stage of her life, Heidi had to face untold miseries on account of circumstances related to of her birth, abandonment by the parents, and the cultural clashes to which she was exposed to. Her destiny was linked to the destinies of two nations. On being sent to America with the consent of her mother, primarily for safety considerations in Vietnam, she was adopted by a single mother, in a township of Pulaski, Tennessee. As she reached adulthood, her relationship with the adopted mother deteriorated and she began intense search for her own mother. She succeeded in her efforts, got a link to her whereabouts and came to know that she lived with her half-siblings. Heidi decides to visit her at the native homeland, notwithstanding the deep cultural differences. The plot of the movie is not smooth-sailing one, but full credits to the producer, they maintain a non-judgmental approach and it involves several questions for which satisfactory solutions are difficul t to find. Her birth mother has abandoned Heidi, and it is not expected of her to show love and sympathy for her.

Competition Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Competition Law - Essay Example The important objectives of the practice of competition law are to ensure the entrepreneurs by providing the opportunity to compete in the market economy and protect the interest of the consumer welfare. This essay will discuss the purpose of competition law. Competition law is a law that focuses on the control of anti-competitive agreements, monopolies and mergers between organizations. This area of legal firmament also included cartels (LSE 1). Restrictive business practices can often lead to market failures. The failure in the market can be dealt by the competition law. There are several kinds of restrictive business practices that include abuse of dominance, cartelization, tie-in sales, predatory pricing, re-sale price maintenance etc. Before discussing the purpose of the competition law, it is vital to note the origin and history of the law. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, the competition law emerged. The competition law was first enacted in the United States. The Sherman Act of 1890 is the first Federal Statute. This act was enacted to tackle monopolies and oligopolistic cartels. In the wake of Industrial Revolution, the large trusts were formed. This act emerged against the predations and supremacy of the huge trusts. The three major elements of modern competition law are merger control, anti-competitive agreements and abuse of dominance. Other important United States legislations were Hart-Scott-Rodino Act, the Clayton Act, the Robison-Patman Act and the Federal Trade Commission Act. The proliferation of competition law has not been only in North America and Europe but also around the globe. After the enactment, competition law became one of the crucial pillars of a market economy. The main purpose of the law is to maintain market competition and improve economic efficiency. It can be regarded as the force that drives companies to improve their efficiency. After enhancing the efficiency, it drives companies to pass its

China and Europe during the Middle Ages Essay Example for Free

China and Europe during the Middle Ages Essay Globalisation is not new, though. For thousands of years, people and, later, corporations have been buying from and selling to each other in lands at great distances, such as through the famed Silk Road across Central Asia that connected China and Europe during the Middle Ages. Likewise, for centuries, People and corporations have invested in enterprises in other countries. In fact, many of the features of the current wave of globalisation are similar to those prevailing before the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. But policy and technological developments of the past few decades have spurred increases in cross-border trade, investment, and migration so large that many observers believe the world has entered a qualitatively new phase in its economic development. Since 1950, for example, the volume of world trade has increased by twenty times, and from just 1997 to 1999 flows of foreign investment nearly doubled, from $468 billion to $827 billion. Distinguishing this current wave of globalisation from earlier ones, author Thomas Friedman has said that today globalisation is further, faster, cheaper, and deeper. The current wave of globalisation has been driven by policies that have opened economies domestically and internationally. In the years since the Second World War, and especially during the past two decades, many governments have adopted free-market economic systems, vastly increasing their own productive potential and creating myriad new opportunities for international trade and investment. Governments have also negotiated dramatic reductions in barriers to commerce and have established international agreements to promote trade in goods, services, and investment. Taking advantage of new opportunities in foreign markets, corporations have built foreign factories and established production and marketing arrangements with foreign partners. A defining feature of globalisation, therefore, is an international industrial and financial business structure. Technology has been the other principal driver of globalisation. Advances in information technology, in particular, have dramatically transformed economic life. Information technologies have given all sorts of individual economic actors consumers, investors, businesses valuable new tools for identifying and pursuing economic opportunities, including faster and more informed analysis of economic trends around the world, easy transfers of assets, and collaboration with far-flung partners. Globalisation is deeply controversial, however. Proponents of globalisation argue that it allows poor countries and their citizens to develop economically and raise their standards of living; while opponents of globalisation claim that the creation of an unfettered international free market has benefited multinational corporations in the Western world at the expense of local enterprises, local cultures, and common people. Resistance to globalisation has therefore taken shape both at a popular and at a governmental level as people and governments try to manage the flow of capital, labour, goods, and ideas that constitute the current wave of globalisation. COCULSION: In sum, most distinctive conception sees globalisation as a fundamental transformation of human geography on the eve of the twenty-first century; world affairs have acquired a rapidly growing global dimension alongside the territorial framework of old. Of course and this point cannot be stressed too much it is not that territorial space has become wholly irrelevant in contemporary history. We live in a globalising rather than a completely globalised condition. Global spaces of the kind formed through telecommunications, transworld finance, and the like interrelate with territorial spaces, where locality, distance and borders still matter very much. Thus, for example, people have not while acquiring a global imagination discarded their affinities for particular territorial places. Similarly, global marketers have found on countless occasions that they need to tailor their products and promotions to local sensibilities. Globalisation is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and the governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology. This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well being in societies around the world. BIBLIOGRAPHY: www.globalisationguide.org

Geotechnical Engineering And Physical Properties Engineering Essay

Geotechnical Engineering And Physical Properties Engineering Essay Burj Al Arab is the worlds tallest iconic and most luxurious hotel. This building has received numerous recognitions around the world, and is mainly known by its design which resembles the shape of a sail boats mast. This 321 meter high building was built on a man-made island only 280 meters from the coast, giving all visitors a 360o view of the bay. Construction began in 1993. Engineers created a surface with a layer of rocks, which is circled with a honey-comb pattern which protects the surface and foundation from erosion. The building contains more than 70Â  000 m2 of concrete and 9Â  000 tons of steel. It took only two years to construct the building and three years to construct the foundation on beach sand, making this a geotechnical wonder.8 Introduction Geotechnical Engineering entails to obtain information of the physical properties of the soil and rock on a proposed site known as site exploration. This information combined with the mechanics of soil can assess the risks presented by the site conditions that must be concluded in the design process of foundations, earthworks and retaining walls. Burj Al Arab has one of the rarest and most interesting foundations, earthworks and retaining wall phenomenas. This include building an island 280 meter off coast as a foundation for this 321 meter high sea shore wonder.1 Throughout this report we will look at which soils are found in Dubai, as well as the properties thereof including the construction of this hotel foundation. Constructing the Burj Al Arab hotel The design of the Burj Al Arab has been constructed with a specific geometry which supports the sail boat like design by protecting the building from changing wind loads. The outermost wall of the building has been constructed by the use of PTFE coated fibreglass which contains air gaps at regular intervals. This double curve membrane design is able to withstand wind pressures easily.3 Additional cables have been provided onto the structure to prevent any deflection in materials. On the full height of the building expansion joints were provided on the right side of the building to ensure the building can withstand the wind load pressures as well as the horizontal stresses that may occur during construction and operation. The material that was used for this sail boat like structure is not only robust but it also protects the buildings interior from the sun by using light defusion.3 After seventy thousand cubic meters of concrete and ninety thousand tons of steel, this great engineering wonder is noted as the heart of Dubai. This spectacular feature of the Burj Al Arabhotel, with its two hundred and two rooms, is located 280 meter off shore from the coast of Dubai and recognised as the best in the world. 2 Concept Architect: Tom Willis-WrightimagesCAHJ41BO.jpg Construction Engineer: WS Atkins and Partners Overseas Multidisciplinary Consultancy. Interior designers: Khuan Chew, Design Principal of KCA International (London). Location: Jumeirah Beach Road, Jumeirah, Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Date: 1994-1999 Style: Postmodern Type/Structure: Luxury 7 stars*Â  rating hotel/resort Size: 321m x 280m (1,053 ft) Medium: steel, glass, cement, steel cables, piles From: Antonino Terranova. The Great Skyscrapers of the World. Special gatefold edition, page 269-279. Figure 1: Burj Al Arab hotel Dubais Soil Profile The topography of Dubai (which lies within the Arabian Desert) is different from the southern portion of the UAE. Its landscape consists of sandy desert patterns consisting mostly out of crushed shell and coral and is clean and white, whereas gravel dominates in the southern regions of the country. 2 When looking at the soil properties of Dubai, its weak and will most probably move outwards in the case of any construction on it. See figure 1 Dubai soil map. 3 Studies also show that Dubais possibility of a tsunami is minimal, due to the Persian Gulf water that is not deep enough to trigger a tsunami. Thus Dubai is classified as a stable zone, whereas the nearest seismic fault line is 120 km from the UAE, making it unlikely for Dubai to be hit by a seismic impact.2 http://www.gisdevelopment.net/proceedings/mapmiddleeast/2006/natural%20resource%20management/images/mme06138_3.jpg Figure 2: Dubai soil map. Foundation Problems The moment when Dubai laid focus on the development of this world wonder, they knew it would be an engineering challenge. Many elements must be taken in consideration in geotechnical engineering to build the worlds 15th tallest building on seabed, where its properties are known as a collapsible soil due to a lack of silt and clay. The collapse phenomenon can be defined as a soil which can withstand somewhat large stresses, with little settlement at low in situ moisture content which will show signs of a decrease in volume and associated settlement with no increase of load if the moisture content rises. Therefore the change in volume goes hand in hand with the change in the soil structure. It is thus evident that a number of conditions need to be met before collapsing begins: 6 The soil must have a collapsible fabric in its structure. This is where the specified soil has a high void ratio and yet has relatively high shear strength at low moisture content due to a coating (Colloidal) around each grain. Partial saturation is essential. This is where collapse settlement will not occur in soils which are located under the water table. Increase of moisture content. This could be seen as the cause for the collapse to take place. With the increase of moisture the colloidal coating loses its strength and thus forces the grains to a denser state with reduction in void ratio. Subjected to an imposed load greater than their overburden pressure before collapse can take place. This is only applied to certain collapsible soils. The typical problem associated with a collapsible soil to a building is that although it is dependent on the increase of the moisture content, collapse can take place years after construction has taken place. 6 Large magnitude settlements can occur beneath lightly loaded structures as well as collapse settlement is regularly localised due to defects in foundation, drainpipe leakage and where ponding occur during rainfall. The engineering properties which most affect the cost of a construction are strengthening compressibility. Both can be enhanced by reducing the voids in the soil. Water must be displaced from the saturated soils in order to reduce the void volume. This can take months if the permeability of the type of soil present is low. The following engineering solutions to the mitigation of the collapse problem are listed below: 6 Avoidance by stopping the triggering mechanism (increase in moisture). This can be made possible by ensuring that water does not penetrate the collapsing soil horizons. Design for collapse. This could be possible in certain scenarios to design a structure which could withstand the predicted collapse settlement. Chemical stabilisation. This is to make use of a stabilising agent which could reduce the settlement. Piled or pier foundation. This is used only when the soil comes from a transported origin which means that the bedrock is covered with a shallow layer, making it possible to rather build on piers or piles. Removal and compaction. This could be done by removing the collapsible soil to a certain depth and replace it through compacting the removed soil in layers. In situ densification by surface rolling. Surface rolling can be done by making use of an impact or vibrating roller for compaction. Soil Properties Beach sand is one of many soils that have a collapsible grain structure, where its surface contains large quantities of calcium carbonate which in more defined terms are remains of microscopic plants and animals that thrive on nutrients in the water surface, where it ultimately settles to the floor. The strength and the behaviour of this soil are thus dependent on the calcareous particles which it contains. These grain particles is well rounded due to it being rotated and shaped by the waves and is poorly graded (i.e. having a narrow particle distribution). This contributes to the high void ratio, meaning that the soil is very loose and can be seen as not a good bonding material. 6 Table 1: Transported soil and possible engineering problem. Soil Type Transported Soil Type Agency of transportation Source Problem to anticipate Beach Sand Littoral deposit Waves Mixed Collapsible grain structure Tests to be performed on beach sand A large amount of data can be generated from soil, but it can all be wasted if the most important step of sampling is not carried out properly. Thus, in order for an analysis to be of significance to a proposed project, it should represent the bulk material of the site. Additionally, soil samples must be taken in abundance and at random, to ensure that the overall characteristics of the soil are effectively represented. See table 2 for properties beach sand. The following tests were used in classifying beach sand (collapsing soil structure):3 Particle size distribution. This test is performed to measure the particle size distribution of the soil sample by passing it through a set of sieves. This is in order to produce a grading curve for the soil, which is used to find out its classification. The solid particles in a soil can have different shapes and sizes, and these characteristics thus have a significant effect on its engineering behavior. By making use of this test one can clearly note whether the soil is well or poorly graded. As for beach sand it is known to be a collapsible soil due to it having a poorly graded grain structure and affected by an increase in moisture. Atterburg limits. This test makes use of three separate tests namely Liquid limit test, Plastic limit test and Shrinkage limit test. This test is used to determine a relationship between the soils consistency and its moisture content. If the soil has low moisture content, it would aim to break before deformation takes place, whereas if the moisture content is too high, the soil will deform more easily. This test is of great importance due to it having an impact on settlement underneath a proposed structure. The test can be used to distinguish between the presence of silts and clays. This is important as silt has much less cohesion than clay. Dry density. This can easily be determined in a laboratory by measuring its physical dimensions and by weighing them. The dry density of a collapsible soil lies between 900-1600 kg/m3. Oedometer test. When a structure is build on a soil it produces settlement due to compression within the soil profile, which depends on the soils properties such as self-weight and also the type of load the soil is experiencing. This test makes use of a series of loads in order to measure the corresponding settlement of the soil. By knowing the soils stress and strain properties will allow the prediction in settlement and swelling of the soil. Collapse Potential test. This test is used to determine the collapse parameters in order to design accordingly. The CP (Collapse Parameters) is given in percentage, to determine the level of severity. Triaxial test. This test is similar to the unconfined compression test, except that the sample is surrounded by a waterproof membrane and installed in a pressure chamber (cell). This test is thus performed to estimate the stress and strain parameters of the specific soil. Permeability. This test is used to determine the ease of which water can flow through a soil profile, which is important for geotechnical engineers in projects. Table 2: Soil properties of silt sand.9 Soil Properties Beach Sand Specific Gravity 2.64-2.66 Bulk Density (Mg/ M3) 1.82-2.15 Dry Density (Mg/ m3) 1.45-1.95 Void ratio 0.35-0.85 Liquid limit (%) 24-35 Plastic limit (%) 14-25 Effective cohesion (kPa) 75 Angle of friction (deg) 32-36 Construction of Burj Al Arab Foundation Constructing a building on sea, an artificial island is needed to design and build the foundations. As many elements need to be taken into account to build an off shore structure, it is therefore important to ensure the protection of the foundation. This can only be done by evaluating all apposed loads to a structure. Seafloor stability regards to the bearing capacity and the sliding resistance thereof must be evaluated for static and combined static, operational and environmental (Like horizontal, vertical loading and overturning moments of the environment which have a return period of up to 15 seconds) loads. Structures with more or less a 150 meter depth could experience horizontal loads of 15-35% of the vertical loading, whereas the overturning moment can be ranging from 100 to 500 million kN/m.8 The change in vertical load during a storm can range from 10 40 % of the static vertical load. This means that the foundation needs to be strong to be able to obtain these loadings. Luc kily these loadings were much less when Burj Al Arab was constructed, due to it only being 7 meters in depth.8IslandConstruction1.jpg Figure 3: Piling of the Burj Al Arab hotel The first step in constructing the island was to place 230 concrete piles (see Figure 3), each one 40 meter in length, which was drilled into the sea bed. The foundation is therefore held in place by the friction of the sand and silts along the length of the piles, rather than the conventional bedrock. The surface was then made by using large rocks that were put together in a specific concrete pattern (honey-comb pattern) which serves as a shield to minimise erosion to the foundation. Making the platform on which the building would be constructed, tube files and sheet files were drilled deep into the sea to support various boundary rocks. Once this was completed the sea water was displaced to fill the inside with concrete slabs as seen on table 3. IslandConstruction2.jpg The structure was then surrounded with a temporary concrete structure to protect the island and the base of the structure, which was filled with a concrete plug slab. Lastly the concrete walls was made where the main basement floor of the building was build (See Figure 4).3 Figure 4: Burj Al Arab Excavated Basement Table 3: Foundation of the Burj Al Arab Conclusion The Burj Al Arab being a geotechnical wonder is due to its size as well as its ability to withstand the environment and the impacts thereof. This building is only carried by a sandy soil which contains broken shells. Its ability under shear strength and pressure is very low, especially since it is located 280 meters of shore. Thus the building stands only on piles which are held into place by just the friction between the soil and the piles, making this project one of the most remarkable foundation types in history. The design of this foundation on this type of soil is breaking barriers in the building industry, making Dubai a leading country in development. Due to South Africa not being a first world country it is impossible for us to be compared to a city which encourages ultimate engineering in structural, hydraulic and geotechnical engineering. Therefore we cannot compare the infrastructures of their country with ours. South Africa could always strive to be a first world country by focusing on infrastructure as well as the inequality of societies. This would encourage tourism and affect the economy positively.

Lung Cancer: History, Causes, Types and Treatments

Lung Cancer: History, Causes, Types and Treatments Lung Cancer Introduction Lung cancer is a kind of cancer that begins in the lungs. Lungs are the spongy organs in the chest that are responsible for taking in oxygen when one inhales and releases carbon-dioxide when one exhales. Lung cancer is the principal causation of cancer related deaths in the United States, amongst both women n and men. It claims more lives annually than does breasts, ovarian, prostate and colon cancers, all combined. People that smoke have the highest chances of suffering this ailment. The risk of this form of cancer increases with the number of cigarettes one smokes and the duration that one smokes. Lung cancer causes the demise of more than one million people worldwide in a single year. It is projected that roughly 90% of deaths caused by lung cancer in men and 75-80% overall deaths in the United States are owed to smoking. Vividly, lung cancer is a prevalent and imperative disease that constitutes a major health problem in the world. History In the past 150 years, lung cancer was non-existent. In the year 1878, only 1% represented the malignant lung cancers that were seen by the pathology institute of university of Dresden, Germany. By the year 1918, the percentage of cancer had risen to about 10% and by the year 1927 it had risen to more than 14%. It was noted in 1930 that t the turn of the new century the malignant tumors had begun to increase and may be even more by the end of World War I. It was noted that whilst most of the lung tumors happened to men, there seemed to be a rise of the tumors in women as well. The period of the disease from the time it was known to the time of death was usually between a year and two years at most. In all these cases of the patients diagnosed with the lung tumors, there had been a prolonged history of chronic bronchitis. The increase of lung cancer was said to have been on the rise due to several probable etiological factors: increase in air pollution by dust and gasses that were emitted by the industries; being exposed to gases in World War I; increased automobile traffic; and working with gasoline or benzene. Nevertheless, lung cancer cases rose at an equally alarming rate in the countries that had few automobiles, less industries and workers not exposed to gasoline and benzene. In several instances, smoking was mentioned as a possibility that caused lung cancer, but many investigations failed to confirm a link between lung cancer and smoking. There were however suspicions that smoking did actually contribute to the illness. However, in the year 1929, Fritz Linckint, a German physician, researched and published the findings that the lung cancer patients were most likely to be smokers. This led to his campaigns against smoking which led to the spread of anti-tobacco activism in Germany. The link amid lung cancer and smoking of cigarettes began to be prominent in the 1930s due to the suspicions of clinicians owed to the increase in the disease. After two decades, smoking was declared an agent that caused lung cancer. In the 1940s in Germany, lung cancer was the second frequent cause of cancer death after stomach cancer. Research by The German Institute for Tobacco Hazards Research postulated that amongst 109 lung cancer patients, only three were not smokers. It however took a very long time for the truth to sink in that there was a causative link between lung cancer and smoking. Most of the smokers as well as the physicians, who enjoyed cigarettes refused to trust that their habit was harmful to their health. In the 1500s two regions in Czechoslovakia and Germany, Joachimsthal and Schneeberg were productive mines that yielded arsenic, bismuth, cobalt, nickel and silver. The miners in these ores developed some deadly disease that the locals termed at â€Å"the mountain disease† that was labeled an occupational disease for the miners. Most thought that arsenic was the root cause of this lung cancer but it was later proven that it was the emissions of radium that was the cause. Lung Cancer Risks and Causes To a large extent, the biggest cause of lung cancer is smoking. Smoking causes over 8 out of ten lung cancer cases including a tiny fraction caused due to being exposed to second hand smoke for the non-smokers (passive smoking). The more an individual smokes, the higher the chances of getting lung cancer though the length of time that one stays a smoker is even more crucial than the number of cigarettes one takes a day. It is more harmful to start smoking at a a young tender age than starting as an adult. When one stops smoking it reduces the risks they have of contacting lung cancer as compared to continuing to smoke. The sooner one quits, the better their health. Passive smoking, breathing in other persons’ smoke from cigarettes, increases the possibility of lung cancer though it is much less if one smokes themselves. Cigarette smoking is therefore the major basis of lung cancer. Cigar and pipe smokers also have an increased chance of getting lung cancer as compared to those who do not smoke. They are also very likely to get cancer of the lip or mouth. In the past lung cancer was common with men than women, but nowadays since more women are smoking, it is also as common amongst women. Other risk factors that are known to cause lung cancer include: the exposure to radon gases and certain chemicals, air pollution, a previous lung disease, a family history of lung cancer, lowered immunity, previously smoking related cancers, and a past treatment of cancer. Radon gas is a natural radioactive gas that originates from the tiny deposits of uranium found in all soils and rocks. Radon gas is the second biggest cause of lung cancer after smoking. Exposure to radon gas increases the risk of getting lung cancer for the smokers. It is therefore advisable for the people living in areas prone to this gas to stop smoking since their chances of getting lung cancer are very high. Certain chemicals have been known to cause lung cancer: diesel exhaust, silica and asbestos. Contact with Asbestos was common in the 1960s in the shipbuilding and construction industries. Asbestos is still a lung cancer cause since the cancers take a pretty long time to develop. Smokers are at a higher risk of contacting lung cancer when exposed to asbestos. Silica is also a chemical that is used in glass making and is harmful to the human body since it causes a condition called silicosis. A person suffering from this illness has a very high chance of getting lung cancer, and once again, smokers are more at risk as compared to non-smokers. Air pollution has also been known to cause lung cancer. It however depends on the level of air pollution one exposes themselves to. People who have had previous diseases in the lungs have an increased rate of getting lung cancer. Adenocarcinoma of the lung is a form of lung cancer that occurs after one has had a disease in the past that caused a scar in the lungs. Tuberculosis is one such disease that can leave a scar in the lung. People who have suffered from tuberculosis have a double risk of getting lung cancer. The risk continues for over 20 years of the disease. Chlamydia pneumoniae is a kind of a bacterium known to cause chest infections. The people with the antibodies to Chlamydia pneumonia have an increased chance of getting lung cancer. The risk is even greater for the smokers. Family history of lung cancer could also be another risk factor to lung cancer. If a person has a first degree relative with the disease, their risk of lung cancer will be increased by 50%. This risk is however higher if a sister or brother has lung cancer, than the parent. This risk is not dependent on whether an individual smokes or not. Families with smokers could be exposed to smoke from cigarettes and therefore increase the chances of contacting lung cancer whether they have inherited a defective gene or not. Research has it that there is a likelihood that at least a single faulty gene could increase the risk of lung cancer and can be passed down in the family, inherited. There is evidence that particular treatments of cancer could increase the risks of lung cancer. An assessment into the cure for breast cancer shows that the ways of administering radiotherapy have in the past increased the risk of developing lung cancer. Oestrogen receptor negative patients suffering from breast cancer have a high risk of getting lung cancer. Other people who may also have increased chances of getting lung cancer are those that have been treated for a type of cancer of the womb, testicular cancer, and Hodgkin lymphoma. Just like in the past causes of cancer discussed above, the chances of getting lung cancer are more increased for the smokers. Persons who have had neck, head cancer, cervical cancer and oesophagal cancer have a high risk of lung cancer. This could be explained by the reason that all the mentioned cancers are common for smokers, though it could also be due to radiotherapy curative procedures. The drugs that people take after they have had organ transplants and the people with HIV/AIDS both have low immunity. People with HIV or AIDS therefore have a risk of lung cancer that is 3 times more than those that do not have the disease. People who use drugs that suppress immunity after they have had an organ transplant have a double the normal risk of lung cancer. People with autoimmune conditions such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis also have an increased chance of getting lung cancer. Signs and Symptoms of Lung Cancer Lung cancer may not produce any conspicuous symptoms during the early stages. In about 40% of persons diagnosed with lung cancer, diagnosis is normally made after the disease has already advanced. In most of the patients, the cancer advances to stage three for it to be detected. There are however some lung cancer symptoms that one ought to watch out for and seek medical attention early in advance. A new cough that lingers is one sign of lung cancer; since a cough related to a respiratory infection or cold should disappear within one to two weeks. One should not label a lingering cough as â€Å"just a cough† whether it is mucus producing or dry. It is therefore advisable to see a doctor immediately for testing. Changes in the cough is also trivial to note more so for the smokers. These changes include the cough having a hoarse and deeper sound, coughing up more mucus than normal or blood and coughing more often than is usual. Becoming easily breathless or experiencing shortness of breath are some probable indicators of lung cancer. This symptom could probably occur when the lung cancer narrows or blocks the airway, or when fluid from the lung tumor accumulates in the chest. This symptom should not be ignored for tiredness or dismissed for whatever reason. The presence of lung cancer can produce pain the back, shoulder and chest areas. The aching feeling could however not be accompanied by coughing. The chest pain caused by lung cancer is owed to a discomfort that is as a result of metastasis or the enlargement of lymph nodes to the ribs, pleura (lining in the lung region) or the chest wall. Wheezing is another symptom of lung cancer. The whistling or wheezing sound is produced by the lungs when one breaths, since the airways become inflamed, blocked and constricted by the occurrence of the tumor. Since wheezing is associated with treatable and benign causes, one should have it checked and not assume it since it could be a probable cause of lung cancer. The voice changes when one has lung cancer and becomes raspier, hoarse and deeper. Hoarseness in normal circumstances could be as a result of a simple cold, but when it persists to more than two weeks; it ought to be checked out. The hoarseness that is related to lung cancer occurs when a tumor tampers with the nerves that are responsible for controlling the voice box or larynx. A weight loss that cannot be explained of approximately 10 pounds or more may be linked to lung cancer or a different type of lung cancer. When there is a cancer in the body, ones weight drops as a result of the cancer cells using the energy in the body. It also tampers with the normal way in which the body uses energy acquired from food. Lung cancer could spread to the bones producing pain in the body and more so in the back. The pain is worse at night when the patient rests on their back. Lung cancer is also linked to pain in the neck, arm and shoulder. Headaches could be a sign that the lung cancer has spread to the brain. The headaches could also be triggered by pressure by the lung tumor on the superior vena cava (the large vein responsible for moving blood to the heart from the upper body). Prevention of Lung Cancer Several factors may help in the protection of lung cancer: diet, physical activity, aspirin and having multiple sclerosis. Vegetables and fresh fruits may help in the prevention of lung cancer since they contain chemicals that can prevent damage to cells. The antioxidant vitamins E, C and A, are also thought to help in the reduction of lung cancer. New evidence postulates that flavonoids in many vegetables and fruits help reduce the risk of lung cancer. Research is however ongoing to find out which exact nutrients in vegetables and fruits are of utmost help. Beta cryptoxanthin, found in fruits like mangoes and oranges may lower risk of lung cancer. Changing diet alone cannot reduce the risk of lung cancer much when one carries on smoking. The most vital thing is to quit smoking. Studies have shown that high levels of physical activity can lower the risk of lung cancer. This includes the activities at home, work and leisure activities such as golf and walking. Some research has it that taking aspirin may reduce the risk of lung cancer but other studies have not. Other studies postulate that aspirin intake may only reduce the risk in men or for people taking 7 tablets within a week. It is however not advisable to take aspirin on regular basis without the doctor’s instructions since it may cause bleeding or damage the stomach lining. People with multiple sclerosis, according to some research, have a low lung cancer risk. Types of Lung Cancer There are two main lung cancer types: Small Cell Lung Cancer (SCLC) and non-small cell lung cancer. The staging of lung cancer depends on whether the cancer has spread from lungs to lymph nodes or other organs, or whether the cancer is local. Since the lungs are very large, tumors can grow for a long duration before they are found. Symptoms such as fatigue and coughing may occur but people will always dismiss them thinking they are caused by other causes. Due to this reason, the early stages of lung cancer (stages I and II) are difficult to detect. Most people suffering from cancer are diagnosed at stages III and IV. Treatment Options for Lung Cancer There are four varied ways on how to treat lung cancer: targeted therapy, chemotherapy, radiation therapy and surgery. The options for treatment and recommendations highly depend on a number of factors such as the patient’s overall health and preferences, the possible side effects and the stage and type of lung cancer. The care plan also includes treatment for the symptoms and the side effects. Surgery A thoracic surgeon is mainly trained to perform lung cancer surgery. The aim of surgery in cancer treatment is to completely remove the lung tumor and the close by lymph nodes in the chest area. The tumor should be removed with a surrounding margin or border of normal lung tissue. Several types of surgery may possibly be used for lung cancer: Pneumonectomy, segmentectomy, a wedge, lobectomy, radiofrequency ablation and adjuvant therapy. Adjuvant therapy is the cure given after surgery to lessen the lung cancer risk returning. It involves chemotherapy, targeted therapy and radiation therapy. The intention behind adjuvant therapy is to rid the body of any cancer cells that may still be in the body after the surgery. Radiation therapy This is the application of high energy x-rays and other particles to destroy cells of cancer. A radiation oncologist gives radiation therapy to cancer patients. External-beam radiation therapy is the most regularly used form of radiation therapy used that is given by use of a machine that is outside the body. Brachytherapy, radiation treatment using implants, in not used for lung cancer. Lung cancer patients who undergo radiation therapy experience loss of appetite and fatigue. If therapy is administered in the center of the chest or neck, patients may have difficulty swallowing or experience a sore throat. Chemotherapy This is the use of drugs to destroy cancer cells through stopping the cancer cells growth and division. Chemotherapy has been proven to improve the quality and length of life for the lung cancer patients in all stages. Common ways of administering chemotherapy is through placing an intravenous (IV) tube that is placed in the vein by use of needle or a capsule or pill administered orally. Chemotherapy side effects depend on the dose used and individual. They include hair loss, diarrhea, appetite loss, vomiting, nausea, fatigue and risk of infection. The side effects normally go away when the treatment is finished. Targeted therapy This form of treatment blocks the spread and growth of cancer cells whilst limiting harm to healthy cells. For lung cancer, the types of targeted therapy administered include anti-angiogenesis therapy. Conclusion It is not always possible to recover fully from cancer. When the treatment does not succeed, the disease is called terminal or advanced cancer. Diagnosis is very stressful for many patients to discuss. It is however crucial to have an honest and open discussion with the healthcare team or doctor to express concerns, preferences and feelings. Patients with advanced cancer and expected to live for less than six months should consider palliative care known as hospice. Hospice care is intended to provide the possible best quality life for people near the end of life. Arius and Athanasius | Analysis Arius and Athanasius | Analysis SYPNOSIS Arius and Athanasius were archrivals of the Arian controversy. Arius was the leading father in Arianism whilst Athanasius was the defender of the Nicene Theology for orthodox Christianity against Arianism. As Arianism rejects the divinity of Christ, salvation to mankind was at stake. Athanasius advocates the consubstantiality of the three persons of the trinity which was crucial argument to defend the divinity of Christ. Consequently Athanasius had built the ground of the Trinitarian and Christological doctrine which together with the humanity of Christ represents the complete Trinitarian theology. I. INTRODUCTION The fourth century church experienced a major crisis in understanding Gods divine nature, characteristics and relationship with members of the Godhead. This Arian controversy centred upon two archrival theologians, Arius and Athanasius.1 The controversy represented a new phase of doctrinal development of the Godhead and led to the Council of Nicaea in 325 and the Churchs first ecumenical statement of the Trinity. 2 Athanasius was the champion of Nicene Theology, who greatly defended the traditional Christianity against the Arian heresy.3 Section II of this essay will briefly discuss the background of Arius, and summarize his basic theology. Section III will provide an overview about Athanasiuss life, Athanasius theology in conjunction with his defence against the Arians heretic claims. Finally, the conclusion will be drawn in Section IV. II. THE ARIAN CONTROVERSY The ‘Arian controversy ignited in 318, when Arius openly taught his heretic teachings that denied the full divinity of the Son. Consequently, Arius challenged his bishop (Alexander of Alexandria) and teachers of Alexandria to an Christological conflict.4 The controversy lasted for nearly half a century and became the confrontation between the two archrivals, the ‘Nicene party and Origenists.5 Athanasius coined the names ‘Arian and ‘Arians as pejorative political and theological slurs against Arius and his opponents, who disagreed with him on the consubstantiality of the Son with the Father, and those meant the Son as a creature or held fast to Arius basic position. Cf. Thomas G. Weinandy, Athanasius: a Theological Introduction (Hampshire, England: Ashgate Publishing, 2007), 51-52. Donald K. McKim, Theological Turning Points: Major Issues in Christian Thought (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1988), 14. Justo L. Gonzà ¡lez, The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of The Reformation (3 vols., New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1984, Vol. 1), 173. Johannes Quasten, Pathology: The Golden Age of Greek Patristic Literature. From the Council of Nicaea to the council of Chalcedon (Utrecht, Netherlands: Spectrum Publishers, 1963, Vol. III), 66. Bruce L. Shelly, Church History in Plain Language (2nd Ed., Dallas, Texas: Word Publishing, 1995), 100. Everett Ferguson (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Early Christianity (New York: Garland Publishing Inc., 1990), 8485, 92. The controversy roots lay deep in â€Å"the differences of the ante-Nicene doctrine of the Logos, especially in the two contradictory half truths of Origens Christology, which was claimed by both archrivals ― the full divinity of Christ and his eternal distinctness from the Father.6 Conclusively, the Arians were the catalysts, rather than the main participants.7 II.1. ARIUS AND HIS DOCTRINE Trained in the Lucian School, Arius was called one of the heretical fathers of Arianism.8 Arianism was a heretical doctrine of theological rationalism, based on the teachings of Lucian of Antioch, Paul of Samosata, and Neoplatonic theory of subordinationism.9 Arius wrote very little and only a few fragments survived. Thalia was his only own writing which Athanasius recited.10 Most information about Arius life and his doctrine came from Athanasius writings.11 Influenced by Origen, Arius rejected the term ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (consubstantial) and insisted the concrete and distinct three persons (Ï€ÏÆ'Ï„Î ±ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹Ãâ€š) of the Godhead, a separate essence and the subordination of the Son to Father.12 Nicene split the church into two major groups: 1) The ‘Nicene party― consisted of the West, the school of Antioch and other in the East like Athanasius. They affirmed the full deity of Jesus Christ, but were less clear on the eternal threeness of the Godhead. They did not deny the distinction between Father, Son and Holy Spirit (i.e. they were not Monarchians), but they did not state it as forcefully as the Origenists wanted and so appeared to them to be Monarchian. (2) The Origenists ― were strong on the threeness of the Godhead, but less clear on the deity of Jesus Christ. They were not Arians (i.e. they did not see Jesus Christ as a creature made out of nothing), but they held him to be inferior t o the Father and so appeared Arian to the Nicene party. Cf. Tony Lane, A Concise History of Christian Thought (Rev. ed., London: TT Clark, 2006), 30. Philip Schaff, ‘Arianism in A Religious Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology (3rd ed.; Toronto, New York London: Funk Wagnalls Company, 1894, Vol. 1) 134137. Cf. http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/arianism-schaff.html (29 April 2010). Tony Lane, A Concise History of Christian Thought, 30-31. Philip Schaff, ‘Arianism in A Religious Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology, 134-137. Cf. http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/arianism-schaff.html (29 April 2010). Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 7. Ephiphanius, Panarion 69,4. Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica, 1,4. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 15. Note: Scholars still debate over the ideological forerunner of Arius doctrine, whether it was derived from the theories of Origen, or of Paul of Samosata, or of Lucian of Antioch. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 2, 6-8. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, I.5,6; Athanasius, De Synodis, 15. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381 (Edinburgh: T T Clark Ltd., 1988), 11. And a few sources from the church historians of the fourth and fifth centuries, and from the letters of St. Basil and of Epiphanius of Salamis. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 10-13. Philip Schaff, ‘Arianism in A Religious Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology, 134-137. John Behr, The Way to Nicaea: The Formation of Christian Theology (3 vols.; Crestwood, New York: St Vladimirs Seminary Press, 2001, Vol. 1), 200-201. Arius denied all internal divine relations existing between the Father and the Son ― the eternal deity of Christ and his equality with the Father (ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ±).13 II.2. A SUMMARY OF ARIUS THEOLOGY Arius basic doctrine:14 (1) Godhead is uncreated, unbegotten (ÃŽ ³ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ·Ãâ€žÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š), without beginning;15 (2) The Son of God cannot be truly God. The Son is the first of Gods creatures, a secondary God, â€Å"god by participation.† Like the other creations, â€Å"the Son is not unbegotten (ÃŽ ³ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ·Ãâ€žÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š),† â€Å"he is one of the things fashioned and made,† 16 brought out ex nihilo (ÃŽ ¾ ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ º ÃŽ ½Ãâ€žÃâ€°ÃŽ ½). â€Å"There was a time when the Son of God was not (ÃŽ ½ Ï„Î µ ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ º ÃŽ ½).†17 â€Å"Neither does the Son indeed know his own substance as it is,† â€Å"he was created for our sake, rather than we for his.† â€Å"He is the Son of God not in the metaphysical, but in the moral sense of the word.†18 By the will of God, the Son has his statute and character (á ¼ ¥ÃŽ »ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ºÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š ÃŽ ºÃŽ ±Ã¡ ¼ ° ÏÆ'ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š).† â€Å"The Son is by his nature; changeable, mutable, equally with other rational beings.† The Father is ineffable to the Son; for neither does the Word (Logos) perfectly and accurately know the Father, neither can he perfectly see Him (the Father).†19 (3) â€Å"The title of God is improper for the Son of God, since the only true God adopted him as Son in prevision of his merits.† This sonship by adoption insists â€Å"no real participation in the divinity and no true likeness to it;† Thus, the absolute and eternal divinity of Christ 13 Epiphanius, Panarion 69.6.1ff. Theodoret of Cyrus, Haereticarum fabularum compendium (History of Heresies) I.5. Cf. Philip Schaff, ‘Arius in A Religious Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology,139. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 7-8. 14 Epiphanius, Panarion 69,6. Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica, 1,5,1-4. Athanasius, De Synodis 15. Socrates, Historia ecclesiastica, 1,6. Gelasius of Cyzicus, Historia conc. Nic. 2,3. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 8, 14, 15-16.Cf. Athanasius, Epistula encyclical ad episcopos Aegypti et Libyae, 12. Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters (Philip Schaff ed.; Grand Rapids, Mi: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 1892), 229. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_229.html (25 April 2011). 15 Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica, 1.4.1. See also the conclusion in Arius first Letter to Eusebius of Nicomedia. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 10. 16 Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 16. 17 See the Arius conclusion in his first Letter to Eusebius of Nicomedia. Athanius, De Synodis, II.26. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 10. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 8. 18 Athanasius, Ad Episcopos Aegypti 12. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 16. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 8. 19 Italic words are mine. Athanasius, De Synodis 15. Cf. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 7. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 15. 3 is to be denied.20 (4) The Logos is created by God as the instrument of creation. The Logos holds a middle place between God and the world is made flesh by the will of the Father and fulfilled in Jesus Christ the function of a soul, â€Å"though divine, was less than fully divine.† 21 (5) The Holy Spirit is the first creature of the Logos, and is still less God than the Word. III. ATHANASIUS AND HIS THEOLOGY Though Athanasius was not a systematic theologian, his greatest dedication in life was the fierce defence of orthodox Christianity against the Arian heresy. 22 He was so identified with the cause that the successive history of the Arian controversy is best told by following Athanasius life.†23 The three discourses of Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, were his main dogmatic writings targeted against Arianism.24 The first discourse contained the definition of the Nicene Council ― there is a unity of divine essence between the Father and the Son, and the Son is eternal, increated (ÃŽ ³ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ·Ãâ€žÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š) and unchangeable.25 III.1. ATHANASIUS Athanasius, De Synodis, 15. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 8. Cf. the following citation: â€Å"The leaders in the Arian movement (Arius himself, Eusebius of Nicomedia, Maris and Theognis) received their training under Lucian and always venerated him as their master and the founder of their system. Later critics of Lucian, including Alexander of Alexandria, during the Council of Nicaea in 325, associated his school with Ariuss rejection of the absolute divinity of Christ. No one before Lucian of Antioch and Arius had taught that the Logos is categorically different from God.† of ‘Lucian of Antioch in New Word Encyclopedia. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Lucian_of_Antioch (10 April 2011). Cf. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 100-101. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 67-68. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 66. Justo L. Gonzà ¡lez, The Story of Christianity, 166. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 26. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 26. The systematic and reliable ancient account of Athanasius could be found in the framework, such as Historia acephala and Festal Index.26 Ordained as deacon to his bishop Alexander in Alexandria, Athanasius accompanied Alexander to the Council at Nicaea (325). Later he succeeded Alexander and became the bishop of Alexandria (328-373).27 Athanasius, as a leading Christian writer of NeoAlexandrine School, adopted the historic-grammatical interpretation of Scripture (which the School of Antioch advocated) in all polemical and theological controversy with the Arians.28 The Arians enlisted the support of secular power and corrupt church authority to silence and destroy Athanasius. When Athanasius refused Constantines order to readmit Arius to communion, his opponents launched all kind of allegations, causing calumnies further to increase.29 For instance, under the influence of Eusebius of Nicomedia, the bishops of the Tyrian Synod condemned Athanasius with charges which he could not escape. They exiled Athanasius to Trier and restored Arius to church communion and reinstate him into the rank of the clergy.30 The history about Athanasius life is also found in his own writings and the Syriac introduction to his Festal Letters, also in Historia acephala or called Historia Athanasii, Gregory Nazianzens Oration 21, and some fragments of a Coptic eulogy. Cf. Timothy D. Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius: Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire (2nd Printing 1994; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993), 5. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20. ‘Athanasius in Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Mainentry=t100.e116 (18 March 2011). Cf. David Hugh Farmer, ‘Athanasius in The Oxford Dictionary of Saints (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2003). Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 2, 20. Timothy D. Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius: Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire, 1. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 2, 20. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20-21. Athanasius was firstly charged with murder (sorcery and murder of Arsenius, a Meletian bishop in the Thebaid). His second charge was a political kind (he had threatened to stop the Alexandrian corn-ships).His third charge was his order to assault the presbyter Ischyras. Cf. ‘St. Athanasius (ca. 297 373), Patriarch of Alexandria in Christian Classic Ethereal Library. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/athanasius (18 March 2011). Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 9. Archibald Robertson, Select Writings and Letters of Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria: Edited, with Prolegomena, Indices, and Titles (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Cushing-Malloy Inc., 1978), lxxxvi. John Behr, The Nicene Faith Part1, 165-166. For the letter, see H.I. Bell, Jesus and Christians in Egypt (London: 1924), 53-71. Because of Arian controversy, Athanasius spent seventeen of his forty-five years as bishop in five different exiles.31 This situation happened, probably â€Å"because his Defence against the Arians gave so full an account.†32 Athanasius was likened to â€Å"a modern gangster,† â€Å"an unscrupulous politician,†33 because of â€Å"his oppressive and violent authoritative nature.†34 However he had never been formally charged with heresy,35 and some mentioned that he was the pillar of the church;†36 And the Roman Church hailed him among the four great Fathers of the East.37 III.2. ATHANASIUS THEOLOGY Alexander and his successor Athanasius laid emphasis on Origens insistence on the Sons eternal divinity related to the existence of God as Father rather than creator, which had led to the Nicene doctrine of the identity of substance (ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ±). Athanasius prioritized faith over reason, contrary to Arians rationalistic tendency.38 Athanasius theological approach was centred on Soteriology.39 He was committed to monotheism.40 But Arius account of God was incoherent since on one interpretation it was similar to the radical Judaic monotheism, and the other interpretation of it (one that emphasized â€Å"the Son is god in some secondary sense†) was equivalent to a kind of polytheism ― two gods, namely one God who is ingenerate and 31 Tony Lane, A Concise History of Christian Thought, . Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20. ‘St. Athanasius (ca. 297 373), Patriarch of Alexandria in Christian Classic Ethereal Library. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/atha nasius (18 March, 2011). See also, Timothy D. Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius: Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire, 20. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 239-273, 422. Cf. David M. Gwynn, The Eusebians: The Polemic of Athanasius of Alexandria and the Construction of the Arian Controversy (Oxford Theological Monographs; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 2. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 6. John Behr, The Nicene Faith Part 1, 167. Cf. Adolf Harnack, History of Dogma, (6 vols; trans. Neil Buchanan; New York: Dover Publications,1961, Vol. 4), 62. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma4.ii.ii.i.i.iii.html (25 April 2011). Gregory of Nazianzus, The Orations 21, 26. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20. The four great Fathers of the Eastern Church ― John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Athanasius of Alexandria ― were recognized in 1568 by Pope St. Pius V. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20. ‘Church Fathers in Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_the_Church (6 April 2011). Athanasius, In Illud ‘Omnia mihi tradita sunt, 6. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 66. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 423. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 425. one who is generated. This resulted in two incongruous accusations against the Arians that they were no better than Jews and that they were identical with pagans. 41 Unlike the Arians, who needed the Son as a lower god to reconcile an incomparable and impassable God with the Scriptural message that God suffered for humankinds salvation, Athanasius dealt with the self-revelation of God who had come into the closest contact with His creation (Jn 14:9).42 Athanasius endeavoured to substantiate â€Å"the very tradition, teaching, and faith of the Catholic Church from the beginning, which the Lord gave, the Apostles preached, and the Fathers kept.† Athanasius maintained, â€Å"I have delivered the tradition, without inventing anything extraneous to it.† The tradition was that the one God is a Triad.43 Trinity At the heart of Athanasiuss theology of Incarnation lay his doctrine of Trinity,44 summed up as follows: There is a Trinity, holy and complete, consistent, eternal and indivisible in nature, not composed of one that creates and one that originated, but all creative, called to be God in Father, Son and Holy Spirit. The Father does all things â€Å"through the Word (the Son) in the Holy Spirit†. Their activity is one, and their unity is preserved. The Trinity is Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos III.67, I.17, 18, III.16. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 8. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 424-425. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 426. Athanasius, Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum, I, 28-33. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 66. Brian LePort, An Introduction to the Letters of Serapion on the Holy Spirit by Athanasius of Alexandria, 18. http://westernseminary.academia.edu/BrianLePort/Papers/172851/An_Introduction_to_the_Letters_of_Serapi on_on_the_Holy_Spirit_by_Athanasius_of_Alexandria. (21 April 2011). Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos III.15; Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 402. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_402.html (20 April 2011). R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 424-425. â€Å"not only in name and form of speech but in truth and actuality.† Thus one God, â€Å"who is overall (Eph. 4:6), and through all and in all.†45 Athanasius constantly defended the ontological unity of the Father and the Son through his Scriptural argument. He proved the divinity of Christ and of Holy Spirit,46 because â€Å"if we participate in Christ, we must then participate in God, if our redemption is to be assured.† 47 Athanasius refuted Arius claims that the Son was a creature and had come into being from ‘non-existence, and that â€Å"there was a time when He was not.† Athanasius argued that there can be only one Son ― the eternal Word and Wisdom of the substance of God the Father, and that the Word is always coexistent with the Father, who is the creator and Lord of all, to whom all things owed their existence.48 Athanasius rejected the Arian position that the very name ‘Son presumes His being generated, and that the Son (th e Word) is a work of the will of God for the creation of the world. Athanasius argued that to be begotten implies to be â€Å"an offspring of the Fathers essence, not of His will,† since â€Å"begetting in God differs from human begetting† because of Gods indivisibility. Because the Son is in the Father and proper to Him, as the radiance in the light and stream from fountain, Athanasius asserted that the Sons eternal relation to the Father is essential Italic words are mine. Athanasius, Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum, I, 2, 12, 14, 16, 19-20, 25, 27, 31; III, 15. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos II.24, 25. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 66-67. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 427. Athanasius, De incarnation et contra Arianos, 13-19. Cf. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 422. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 29. Kurt Aland, A History of Christianity: From the Beginnings to the Threshold of the Reformation (Trans. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980, Vol. 1), 191. Athanasius, Vita antonii, 69. Athanasius, Depositio Arii, 2, 3. Athanasius, Epistula de decretis Nicaenae synodi, 11. Athanasius, â€Å"On Luke X.22 (Matt. XI.27)† in In Illud ‘Omnia mihi tradita sunt, 4. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, III.4; Cf. Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 214. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_214.html (15 April 2011). Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 70. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_70.html (15 April 2011). Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 89. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_89.html (18 April 2011). Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69. and not merely moral as Arius viewed.49 Also, Athanasius refuted the Docetic views of the Arians and Apollonarians on the relationship of the historical Christ to the eternal Son. 50 Arius maintained, based on Proverbs 8:22ff, that the Sons mediatory ontological status between God and creation was necessary, because â€Å"the Father was too high and mighty, or too proud to carry out the work of creation himself,† and â€Å"therefore begot the Son† as â€Å"the minister of the intentions of the Father.†51 However, Athanasius argued that the terms applied to the Incarnate and not the pre-existent Christ; Thus, Athanasius implied that the mediating activity of the Son is not in his position within the Godhead, but in his becoming Incarnate. So, Athanasius placed the Son (Logos) on the side of God, opposite Arius placement of the Son on the side of the creatures.52 Athanasius insisted that â€Å"the Son has in common with the Father the fullness of the Fathers Godhead† and â€Å"the Son is entirely God.†53 Against Arius subordination of the Son, Athanasius argued that if the Son says, â€Å"The Father is greater than I,† He means that, â€Å"The Father is the origin, the Son the derivation.†54 â€Å"Eternally begotten, the Son is the Fathers substance, He is consubstantial to the Father, He is ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š.†55 Athanasius also rejected the term ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š as unacceptable. So, Athanasius defended the term ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š against the Arians and Semi-Arians.56 Consequently, Athanasius disapproved what the Arians claim ― a ‘proceeding origin for the Father and the Son.57 Athanasius, Epistula ad Afros episcopos, 3-6. Cf. J ohannes Quasten, Pathology, 56, 67-68. Athanasius, Epistula ad Epictetum episcopum Corinthi, 9. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 59. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos II.24-25. Cf. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 8. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 101. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, II.25; I.16; III.3, 6; II.41; III.3,4. Athanasius, Epistula ad Afros episcopos, 3-6. Cf. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318381, 424. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 67. Athanasius, Oratinones contra Arianos I.16; III.6. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 68. Athanasius, Oratinones contra Arianos III, 3; Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69. Athanasius, De Synodis 41. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69. Athanasius, De Synodis 41. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69-70. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 434. Logos and Redemption Athanasius theology of the Logos centred upon the concept of redemption.58 For Athanasius, the redeeming will of God necessitated the incarnation of Christ and his death. If God Himself had not become man, and if Christ were not God, there would not have been redemption for mankind.59 This can only required that Christ was God by nature, not by participation, because the latter could never have formed the likeness of God in anyone. Thus, Athanasius refuted the Arian concept of the Son as god by participation.60 Christology Athanasius theology upheld the real distinction between the divinity and humanity after the Incarnation, yet emphasized the personal unity of Christ. Consequently, whatever the Lord did as God and as human being belongs to the same person.61 Athanasius refuted the Arian charge of creature-worship directed against the Nicene Christology with the argument, that Catholics do not worship the humanity of Christ, but the Lord of creation, the Word Incarnate.62 Holy Spirit By maintaining that the Spirit â€Å"is no creature, but is one with the Son as the Son is one with the Father, [the Spirit] is glorified with the Father and the Son, and confessed as God with the Word,† Athanasius rejected the idea of the Holy Spirit being one of the Athanasius, De incarnatione et contra Arianos, 9, 54. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 70-71. Athanasius, De incarnatione et contra Arianos, 8. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 71. Athanasius, De Synodis 51. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 71-72. Athanasius, De Sententia Dionysii 9. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology,72. Athanasius, Epistula ad Adelphium et confessorem, 3. Athanasius, â€Å"Letter LX. ― To Adelphius, Bishop and Confessor: against the Arians† in NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 575. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_575.html (20 April 2011). Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, ministering spiritual creatures, and insisted the Godhead of the Holy Spirit according t o the Nicene Creed.63 Athanasius defended the non-scriptural Nicene term ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (consubstantial) and ÃŽ º Ï„Ï‚ ÃŽ ¿ÃÆ'ÃŽ ±Ãâ€š (of the essence). He claimed that these terms were to be found in the Scripture, and they had already been used by the Church Fathers, including Tertullian, Origen, Dionysius of Rome, Dionysius of Alexandria and Theognostus.64 Against the claims of the heretic Arians and Tropicists, Athanasius gave the reasons for adopting the word ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (consubstantial) for both the Son and the Spirit in relation to the Father, and proved that the Nicaeas Trinitarian formula was in accordance with Scripture.65 Athanasius accused the Arians of teaching that God was not always a Trinity since the Son has not always existed, and also of dividing the Trinity because they attributed different natures to the Father and the Son.66 Arianism attacks the very nature of Christianity because it denotes â€Å"a God who was not a true God at all†, who was â€Å"in no position to communicate salvation† to humans, and therefore â€Å"incapable for redeeming mankind†.67 The Arian doctrine, which formed a canon Athanasius, Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum, I, 1, 15-21, 27, 31; III.1. Athanasius, Oratinones contra Arianos II, 25, 26, 73, 74. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 56, 67. For a discussion of Athanasiuss use of homoousious of the Spirit, see Kilian McDonald, The other hand of God: the Holy Spirit as the Universal Touch and Goal (Collegeville, Minnesota, USA: Liturgical Press, 2003), 18, 74, 126. Athanasius, Epistula de decretis Nicaenae synodi, 18. Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 163. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_163.html (20 April 2011). Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 61. Epistula de decretis Nicaenae synodi (Letter Concerning the Decrees of the Council of Nicaea) was written about 350/351 and addressed by Athanasius to one of his friends, to whom the Arian claim had caused confusion. Whereas and Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum (the four letters concerning the Holy Spirit) was written by Athanasius around 359/360 and addressed to Serapion to refute the heretic tropicists, who opposed the divinity of the Holy Spirit. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 57, 61. Kilian McDonald, The other hand of God: the Holy Spirit as the Universal Touch and Goal, 18. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 424. Athanasius, De synodis 51. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 8. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 7. of scriptural misinterpretation, was a slander against the Fathers. 68 The worship which the Arians offered to God was a blasphemous idolatry. 69 Athanasius defended the consubstantiality of the Son with the Father, successfully explained the nature and generation of the Logos, built the ground of the Trinitarian and Christological doctrine of the Church, and thus established the theological foundation for centuries to come.70 Athanasius Christological weakness In his Christology, Athanasius did not assign any important role to the human soul of Christ. In fact, When the Arians objected the divinity of Christ by referring to the Scriptural passages which mention the inner suffering, fear and affliction of the Logos, Athanasius never made use the opportunity and never attacked the Arians in this error, because it dealt with the human soul of Christ. 71 Christs death is to Athanasius is a separation of Logos and body.72 Athanasius theology was based on Logos-Sarx theology. In relation to Orationes contra Arianos (III.35-37) its weakness was revealed when Athanasius could not comment to the Arians in: (1) the connecting link between the Logos and his flesh; (2) the existence of a human soul in Christ.73 Athanasius, De Sententia Dionysii 1. Cf. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 8. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos I.8, II.43, III.16. Athanasius, Ad Episcopos Aegypti 13. Cf. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Ari What are the impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity? What are the impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity? Thesis: the greatest impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity are the possible invasion of escapees, the degradation of the environment, particularly through eutrophication, and the greater risk of harm caused to a wild population. LINK TO IMPACT ON BIODIVERSITY (EFFECT) AQUACULTURE (CAUSE) Intro Aquaculture can be thought of as a practice that it similar to farming. It involves the cultivation of aquatic dwelling organisms either on land, in a tank system or artificial pond (offshore), or in a naturally occurring waterbody using nets or cages to contain the farmed organisms (Lee and Yoo 2014; Rabasso and Hernandez 2015). Aquaculture as an industry has grown significantly in the past few decades, growing to meet the demanding needs of the human food supply network (Diaz-Almela et al. 2008; Borja et al. 2009; Rabasso and Hernandez 2015), as it is an important natural resource (Ormerod 2003). This increase in captive cultivation has slowed the unsustainable practice of mass catching wild stocks as a supply (Santos et al. 2015; Frazer 2009). Aquaculture exists as one of the fastest growing industries in the world today (Naylor et al. 2001), and this growth is projected to increase ever further (Froehlic et al. 2017). Despite this, many of these cultured organisms can have a nega tive impact on the environment that they inhabit (Fleming et al. 1996; Boyd 2003), in part because of its proximity with the natural environment (Abdou et al. 2017). Aquaculture has the ability to greatly impact biodiversity as well if not carefully managed. These impacts on biodiversity can resonate through multiple trophic levels, and can completely change the natural environment. The greatest impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity are the possible invasion of escapees, the degradation of the environment, particularly through eutrophication, and the greater risk of harm caused to a wild population. Through these modes of disruption, aquaculture has the ability to drastically alter the present biodiversity if not managed appropriately. #1: the possible invasion of escapees The possibility of escaped organisms invading a habitat, and pushing out a native species is quite high when aquaculture is in or near existing waterbodies. A wide variety of organisms are farmed in the world (Naylor et al. 2001). From this, Aquaculture has led to the introduction of many invasive species into the ecosystem, and poor practices may cause invasion occurrences to happen more often (Naylor et al. 2001). The escape of cultured organisms can threaten both the habitats and gene pool of wild populations, causing them, and the surrounding biodiversity to change drastically (Fleming et al. 1996). The organisms that are either intentionally, or unintentionally released are able to reproduce in their new habitat rather successfully (Fleming et al. 1996; Volpe 2000). Many escapes such as salmon, are able to out compete, and out number the wild populations, thus threatening their survival (Fleming et al. 1996). Their invasion may lead to a change in ecosystem dynamics, effectively impacting the natural biodiversity that would otherwise be present. #2: the degradation of the environment, particularly through eutrophication The degradation of the natural environment is just one of the many drawbacks that Aquaculture presents. As a result of the exponential growth of the industry, the sustainability and environmental impact of Aquaculture is often scrutinized (Rabasso and Hernandez 2015) for the elevated levels of greenhouse gas emissions, nutrient pollution, water use, and land use that has followed (Gephart et al. 2016). There are many detrimental practices to Aquaculture such as: water pollution from pond discharge, the excessive use of antibiotics to combat disease, Salinization of land from pond leeching, and the mass consumption of freshwater for farming purposes (Boyd 2003). Many of these practices degrade the environment, and threaten biodiversity in such a way that is irreversible. Aquaculture, and in particular fish farms, are an increasing cause of anthropogenic disturbance [in] benthic communities, (Diaz-Almela et al. 2008). Often when farmed within an natural waterbody, fish cages and nets s ee the release of large quantities of organic waste matter that are spread by water-flow and may lead to biochemical changes, and cause the deoxygenation of the aquatic environment, further impacting benthic communities (Zhang and Kitazawa 2016; Diaz-Almela et al. 2008; OCarroll et al. 2016). In the aquaculture industry, fish farming can promote an increased rate of eutrophication which can severely damage coastal ecosystems (Yu et al. 2016) through the addition of elements such as Nitrogen and Phosphorous (Penczak et al. 1982). The damage caused by eutrophication can lead to a disturbance like effect, which can in turn, cause a significant decrease in the biodiversity of that area (Abdou et al. 2017), further degrading the environment. In an attempt to combat the damage caused when farming within a natural ecosystem, many countries of the European Union (including Canada, the United States, and Australia) are beginning to establish offshore farming with the hope for improved sustainability (Froehlic et al. 2017). Social Learning Theory: Outline and Evaluate Social Learning Theory: Outline and Evaluate Ellie Thomas Criminology Outline what is meant by the term identification in relation to the social learning theory approach. [2 marks] Identification is a psychological process whereby someone identifies with something from another person, typically a model of theirs, and then uses this in order to change their personality. For example, a little boy may identify with his older brother because they are both male, and so when he sees him stealing from a shop, he copies. Explain one limitation of the social learning theory approach. [3 marks] This approach is less determinist than the behaviourist approach. Reciprocal determination, introduced by Bandura, is the idea that we are not just influenced by environmental factors, however but merely influences and directs us to behave a certain way. This suggests that we have a sense of free will in our behaviour, and doesnt just stick to one theory as to why we behave the way that we do. Outline and evaluate the social learning theory approach. Refer to the behaviourist approach as part of your evaluation. Even though the social learning theory (SLT) does agree with the behaviourist theory that most of our behaviour is learned through experience Bandura also propose the idea that people can learn through different way, e.g. observation and imitation. Learning does occur through classical and operant conditioning; however, we can also learn indirectly through watching others and learning from mistakes. Another word for this is vicarious reinforcement; learning through observing and imitating; indirectly. An individual observes the behaviour of someone and if the behaviour is received positively, they would learn that they can do that, and if it is received negatively, they will know to never do it. So, if someone is punished we learn not to copy the behaviour, and if someone is rewarded we know that we should or could repeat that behaviour! A huge idea throughout the SLT approach is the role of mediational processes. This is the concept that mental processes effect our behaviour. These mental factors, or mediational processes, created by Bandura, are: attention the extent to which we notice certain behaviours; retention how well the behaviour is remembered; motor reproduction the ability to perform the behaviour; and motivation the will to perform the behaviour. Identification is also a key concept in SLT. This is when people are more likely to imitate the behaviour of people we identify with. These are known as models. We can find models in people we find attractive, family, friends, and peers, and people of high status. If we see our model behaving in a certain way, we are more lily to copy it (imitate it). One strength of the social learning theory is that it is less determinist than the behaviourist approach. Reciprocal determination, introduced by Bandura, is the idea that we are not just influenced by environmental factors, however but merely influences and directs us to behave a certain way. This suggests that we have a sense of free will in our behaviour, and doesnt just stick to one theory as to why we behave the way that we do. Another strength of this approach is that it explains cultural differences in behaviour. This theory can explain how people living in Nigeria behave differently to people living in England, for example, because it says our behaviour is through learning from those around us and the societies in which we live. This has been a useful concept in understanding why children from different countries act differently, for example how they come to understand their gender role. A final strength of the social learning theory approach is that it shows the importance of cognitive factors in learning. Conditioning alone, whether it operant, classical, or both, cannot provide a good enough explanation for behaviour. Humans and animals alike learn and remember behaviours which they should do. For example, from a young child children learn from their older siblings mistakes and therefore avoid doing that punished behaviour. Bandura observed a similar thing with his bobo doll, as when children were shown an adult hitting a bobo doll and getting away with it, they repeated the behaviour, however when they saw an adult getting in trouble for it, they didnt. Therefore, this is a strength because it provides a more comprehensive and detailed explanation of behaviour. However, a weakness of the SLT approach is that it over-relies on evidence from lab studies. Many of the ideas that Bandura developed were all tested through lab studies, and not real life situations. Studies done in labs can often not be a true reflection of what the researcher is investigating because of this. For example, the children in Banduras bobo doll experiment may have understood that as they were not in a real-life situation being shown a video of an aggressive adult, for example they were supposed to copy the behaviours of the adult or they may have acted the way they thought they were supposed to. Therefore, the research may tell us little about how the children truly would have behaved. A final evaluation point of this approach is the weakness that the SLT underestimates the influence of biological factors. Little reference to biological factors are mentioned by Bandura in this approach. However, we can see from his studies that biology does take a toll. For example, boys were found to be more aggressive towards the bobo doll, however we know that testosterone is a hormone found naturally in males, that makes them more aggressive by nature. Therefore, we cannot put down their behaviour entirely to learning, as biology must play a role in it.